Resources & Appendices

• Resources
  • Periodic Table
  • Acid-Base Table
  • Atomic Radii
  • Bond Energies
  • Bond Lengths
  • Bond Types
  • Electronegativities
  • Elements
  • Fundamental Constants
  • Ionic Radii
  • Ionization Energies
  • Polyatomic Ions
  • Standard Reduction Potentials
  • Solubility Rules
• Appendices
  • Appendix A – Stoichiometry of Elements and Compounds
  • Appendix B – Gases
  • Appendix C – Molarity
  • Appendix D – Reaction Stoichiometry
• End of Chapter Exercises
  • Chapter 1
  • Chapter 2
  • Chapter 3
  • Chapter 4
  • Chapter 5
  • Chapter 6
  • Chapter 7
  • Chapter 8
  • Chapter 9
  • Chapter 10
  • Chapter 11
  • Chapter 12
  • Chapter 13
  • Chapter 14
  • Appendix A
  • Appendix B
  • Appendix C
  • Appendix D
• Solutions to Odd Exercises
  • Chapter 1
  • Chapter 2
  • Chapter 3
  • Chapter 4
  • Chapter 5
  • Chapter 6
  • Chapter 7
  • Chapter 8
  • Chapter 9
  • Chapter 10
  • Chapter 11
  • Chapter 12
  • Chapter 13
  • Chapter 14

• Glossary
• Full Print Version

Chapters

• Chapter 1 – The Early Experiments
  • Introduction
    
    Chemistry is the science of matter, its properties, and the changes it undergoes...
  • 1.1 The Scientific Method
    
    Chemistry is that branch of science that deals with matter and the changes it undergoes, and science is that branch of knowledge that is gained by the application of the scientific method...
  • 1.2 Lavoisier and the Birth of Modern Chemistry
    
    Measurements of the ratios in which the masses of substances combined with one another led to the statements of three laws: conservation of mass, constant composition, and multiple proportions...
  • 1.3 John Dalton and Atomic Theory
    
    We now explore the emergence of atoms and molecules, and examine the meaning of chemical formulas and equations...
  • 1.4 Atoms and Molecules
    
    Atoms and molecules are too small to be seen, so scientists work with large numbers of them...
  • 1.5 The Mole and Molar Mass
    
    Dalton recognized that the mass of an atom is an important characteristic, but individual atoms are much too small to weigh...
  • 1.6 Stoichiometry
    
    Determine the number of moles or the mass of one element in a compound from the number of moles or mass of another element in the compound and the chemical formula of the compound...
  • 1.7 Energy
    
    Chemical processes are driven by energy differences, which result from changes in the interactions between charges...
  • 1.8 Electromagnetism and Coulomb's Law
    
    The attraction of opposite charge and the repulsion of like charge are the result of the electromagnetic force...
  • 1.9 Atomic Structure
    
    New technology led to new experiments at the end of the 19^th century...
  • 1.10 Subatomic Particles, Isotopes, and Ions
    
    A third subatomic particle, the neutron, was discovered about 20 years after Rutherford introduced the nuclear model of the atom...
  • 1.11 Dimitri Mendeleev and The Periodic Law
    
    As the number of known elements and the properties grew, it became clear that there had to be some way of organizing all of the information if chemistry was to grow as a science...
  • 1.12 Exercises and Solutions
    
    Select the links to view either the end-of-chapter exercises or the solutions to the odd exercises...
• Chapter 2 – Quantum Theory
  • Introduction
    
    Quantum theory explains our world at the atomic and molecular levels...
  • 2.1 The Nature of Light
    
    Although we do not see atoms and molecules, much of our understanding of them is based on the way they interact with light...
  • 2.2 Quantization
    
    In this lesson, we introduce the concept of quantization, i.e., that energy comes in small packets called quanta...
  • 2.3 Bohr Model
    
    In the Rutherford model, electrons moved in circular orbits, but particles tend to move in straight lines not circles, so circular orbits require a force, called the centripetal force, to pull the orbiting particle toward the center...
  • 2.4 Quantum Theory
    
    The theory that explains blackbody radiation, the photoelectric effect, and line spectra is called quantum theory...
  • 2.5 The Quantum Numbers
    
    Electrons must be treated like waves in modern quantum theory, and their full description requires four numbers called quantum numbers...
  • 2.6 Orbital Shapes and Sizes
    
    Orbitals are at the heart of chemistry because it is the interaction between orbitals that produces chemical bonds...
  • 2.7 Electron Configurations
    
    The number of electrons in each sublevel is given by the electron configuration of an atom...
  • 2.8 Quantum Theory and the Periodic Table
    
    Like other atomic properties, the electron configurations of the atoms are periodic...
  • 2.9 Exercises and Solutions
    
    Select the links to view either the end-of-chapter exercises or the solutions to the odd exercises...
• Chapter 3 – Atomic Structure and Properties
  • Introduction
    
    The nuclear atom and quantum theory are the accepted theories for the atom...
  • 3.1 Valence Electrons
    
    Most of the properties of an atom are related to the nature of its electron cloud and how strongly the electrons interact with the nucleus...
  • 3.2 Shielding and Effective Nuclear Charge
    
    In this section, you will learn how to predict the relative strengths with which the valence electrons interact with the nucleus...
  • 3.3 Relative Atomic Size
    
    Atoms are not hard spheres with well defined boundaries, so the term "atomic radius" is somewhat vague and there are several definitions of what the atomic radius is...
  • 3.4 Relative Orbital Energies
    
    The relative energy of the valence orbitals in an atom is an important characteristic of the atom as it dictates both properties of the atom and the manner and strength of its interaction with other atoms...
  • 3.5 Ionization Energy
    
    One of the properties of an atom that is important in dictating the chemical properties of the atom is the ease with which the atom loses one or more of its valence electrons...
  • 3.6 Electronegativity
    
    The electrons in a bond can lower their potential energy by residing closer to the atom in the bond that has the valence orbital at lower energy...
  • 3.7 Magnetic Properties
    
    All magnetic properties are due to the magnetic fields caused by electron spin...
  • 3.8 Exercises and Solutions
    
    Select the links to view either the end-of-chapter exercises or the solutions to the odd exercises...
• Chapter 4 – Ionic Bond
  • Introduction
    
    Atoms can gain or lose valence electrons to become ions. Ions can be monatomic, such as Ca²⁺ and Cl^1–, or polyatomic, such as NH₄¹⁺ and CO₃^2–...
  • 4.1 Ionic Bonding
    
    Ionic bonds are the electrostatic attraction of oppositely charged ions...
  • 4.2 Naming Ions and Predicting their Charge
    
    Most ionic compounds form between a metal cation and a nonmetal anion. In this section, we examine the electrons that are lost by the metal and the orbitals that are filled by the nonmetal...
  • 4.3 Ionic vs. Atomic Size
    
    We saw in the previous chapter that the size of an atom depends upon the size of its outermost orbitals, and ions form when electrons leave or enter those orbitals...
  • 4.4 Oxidation States
    
    Electron counting (keeping track of where the electrons are in a compound) is a valuable aid in predicting the formulas of compounds, balancing certain types of chemical equations, predicting properties, and even predicting reactive centers...
  • 4.5 Polyatomic Ions
    
    So far, we have considered only monatomic ions (ions composed of a single atom), but many ions consist of several atoms and are called polyatomic ions...
  • 4.6 Naming Ionic Compounds
    
    Understanding how ionic compounds are named helps you better communicate about chemistry...
  • 4.7 Exercises and Solutions
    
    Select the links to view either the end-of-chapter exercises or the solutions to the odd exercises...
• Chapter 5 – Covalent Bond
  • Introduction
    
    We saw in Chapter 4 that ionic bonds are not directional and that ionic compounds exist as extended networks rather than individual molecules...
  • 5.1 The Covalent Bond
    
    Covalent bonds result from the overlap of orbitals and involve a sharing of pairs of electrons...
  • 5.2 Bond Polarity
    
    Although the bonding electrons are shared in a covalent bond, electronegativity differences between the bound atoms can result in unequal sharing...
  • 5.3 Naming Binary Covalent Compounds
    
    In this lesson, you will learn how to name binary covalent molecules...
  • 5.4 Lewis Symbols of the Elements
    
    A Lewis structure shows the placement of the valence electrons around each of the atoms in a molecule...
  • 5.5 Lewis Structures of Diatomic Molecules
    
    We use diatomic molecules to introduce Lewis structures of molecules and to introduce some new terms...
  • 5.6 Determining Lewis Structures
    
    We now extend the previous lesson to include molecules other than diatomic molecules...
  • 5.7 Resonance
    
    In some instances, more than one Lewis structure can be drawn for a molecule...
  • 5.8 Formal Charge and Oxidation State
    
    In Chapter 4, we showed how to determine oxidation states of the atoms in a substance without knowledge of the Lewis structure of the substance...
  • 5.9 Practice with Lewis Structures
    
    Practice drawing Lewis structures in this section.
  • 5.10 Exercises and Solutions
    
    Select the links to view either the end-of-chapter exercises or the solutions to the odd exercises...
• Chapter 6 – Molecular Structure
  • Introduction
    
    A method for constructing Lewis structures of simple molecules and ions was presented in Chapter 5...
  • 6.1 Molecular Shapes
    
    A molecule is a three-dimensional structure, and many of its properties, both chemical and physical, are dictated by that structure...
  • 6.2 Central Atoms With More Than Four Electron Regions
    
    The octet rule applies rigidly only to C, N, O and F, and even nitrogen violates it occasionally because it has an odd number of electrons in some of its molecules...
  • 6.3 Larger Molecules
    
    Groups connected by single bonds can rotate relative to one another about the bond, so VSEPR cannot be used to predict the exact structure of complicated molecules, but it can be used to look at the geometry around individual atoms...
  • 6.4 Valence Bond Theory and Hybridization
    
    In valence bond theory, each bond results from the overlap of two atomic orbitals on adjacent atoms...
  • 6.5 Molecular Orbital Theory and Delocalized Bonds
    
    In valence bond theory, orbitals on the same atom are combined to produce hybrid orbitals, which are then used to overlap an orbital on an adjacent atom to produce a bond that is localized between the two atoms...
  • 6.6 Exercises and Solutions
    
    Select the links to view either the end-of-chapter exercises or the solutions to the odd exercises...
• Chapter 7 – States of Matter and Changes in State
  • Introduction
    
    The materials we deal with every day exist in one of three states of matter: solid, liquid, or gas...
  • 7.1 Gases
    
    Gases are characterized by their volume (V), pressure (P), temperature (T), and the number of moles of particles (n)...
  • 7.2 Kinetic-Molecular Theory and Thermal Energy
    
    The ideal gas law applies only to gases that exhibit ideal gas behavior, which can deviate from real gas behavior...
  • 7.3 Intermolecular Interactions
    
    Why are some molecules gases, while others are liquids and solids at room conditions?...
  • 7.4 Solids
    
    Molecules in the solid and liquid states are much closer to one another than they are in the gas phase, so the solid and liquid states are referred to as the condensed states...
  • 7.5 Liquids
    
    The intermolecular interactions in the liquid state are comparable to thermal energy, so the molecules remain relatively close to one another while undergoing random, but restricted, motion...
  • 7.6 Changes in State
    
    We have all seen ice melt and liquid water boil as a result of increasing the temperature, but ice can also be melted by applying pressure, and liquid water can be made to boil by reducing the pressure...
  • 7.7 Exercises and Solutions
    
    Select the links to view either the end-of-chapter exercises or the solutions to the odd exercises...
• Chapter 8 – Solids
  • Introduction
    
    Solids are characterized by an orderly arrangement of their particles...
  • 8.1 Unit Cells
    
    However, the long range order that characterizes crystalline solids means that there is a small repeat unit, called the unit cell, that can be used to generate the entire crystal...
  • 8.2 Cubic Unit Cells and Metallic Radii
    
    Unit cells must be six-sided polygons that completely fill space (no space between unit cells), and there are only seven types of unit cells that fulfill this requirement...
  • 8.3 Unit Cell Stoichiometry
    
    The number of atoms or ions in a unit cell of a compound does not have to be the same as the number of atoms in the formula of the compound, but the stoichiometry of the unit cell must be the same as the stoichiometry of the compound...
  • 8.4 Coordination Number and Geometry
    
    The coordination number (CN) is the number of nearest neighbors of a given particle in the crystal lattice...
  • 8.5 Density and Packing Efficiency
    
    It is impossible to pack spheres without introducing some void space (space that is not occupied)...
  • 8.6 Band Theory of Simple Metals
    
    The metallic bond is the interaction that holds metal atoms in the solid...
  • 8.7 Ionic Solids and Ionic Radii
    
    The ionic bond (Chapter 4) is the interaction that holds the ions of an ionic substance in the solid state...
  • 8.8 Network Covalent Solids
    
    Covalent solids are like ionic solids in that they are very large networks of particles rather than discrete molecules...
  • 8.9 Molecular Solids and Atomic Radii
    
    Molecular compounds form molecular solids...
  • 8.10 Comparison of Solid Types
    
    Determine the relative melting points of two substances based on the type of solid they form.
  • 8.11 Exercises and Solutions
    
    Select the links to view either the end-of-chapter exercises or the solutions to the odd exercises...
• Chapter 9 – Reaction Energetics
  • Introduction
    
    We use the term energetics to combine two very important fields of study: thermodynamics and kinetics...
  • 9.1 First Law of Thermodynamics
    
    Thermodynamics is the study of energy and its transformations...
  • 9.2 Enthalpy
    
    Typically, reactions are carried out at constant pressure and the initial and final temperatures are the same...
  • 9.3 Enthalpies of Combustion
    
    Most of the energy utilized by humans comes from combustion reactions (reactions with O₂)...
  • 9.4 Bond Energies
    
    Recall from Chapter 5 that bond formation involves a lowering of the energy of the system, i.e., bond formation is an exothermic process...
  • 9.5 Entropy
    
    A spontaneous process is one that takes place without intervention...
  • 9.6 Second Law of Thermodynamics
    
    The fact that systems seek to increase their entropy is the basis of the Second Law of Thermodynamics, the topic of this chapter...
  • 9.7 Free Energy
    
    We now show that ΔS_univ can be written as a sum of system quantities, and, in doing so, derive a new thermodynamic property that includes the effects of both ΔH and ΔS on the spontaneity of any process carried out at constant temperature and pressure...
  • 9.8 Standard Free Energy and the Extent of Reaction
    
    The difference between the free energy of a reaction (ΔG) and the standard free energy of reaction (ΔG°) is an important one and one that is often confused by students...
  • 9.9 Activation Energy
    
    Thermodynamics compares the initial and final states only...
  • 9.10 Rates of Reaction and the Rate Law
    
    In this section, we examine the factors that dictate the rate of a reaction, and then pull all of the factors together into a rate law for the reaction...
  • 9.11 Equilibrium and the Equilibrium Constant
    
    Although it is common to say that a reaction has stopped, reactions don't really stop...
  • 9.12 Le Châtelier's Principle
    
    An open door that is not moving is at equilibrium...
  • 9.13 Exercises and Solutions
    
    Select the links to view either the end-of-chapter exercises or the solutions to the odd exercises...
• Chapter 10 – Solutions
  • Introduction
    
    Solutions are homogeneous mixtures, i.e., mixtures whose properties are uniform throughout...
  • 10.1 Concentration
    
    The properties of a solution made from substances A and B depend upon the dominant type of interaction in the solution...
  • 10.2 Solution Process
    
    In this section, we break the solution process into steps and examine the energy requirements of each step...
  • 10.3 Organic Compounds
    
    We concluded the last section with "like dissolves like." That is, polar solutes tend to be soluble in polar solvents such as water...
  • 10.4. Detergents and Micelles
    
    Grease and stains are hydrophobic, but we remove them by washing our dishes and clothing in water...
  • 10.5 Electrolytes
    
    Ionic compounds are not soluble in most solvents, but water is so polar that some ionic compounds do dissolve in it...
  • 10.6 Electrolyte Solutions
    
    Electrolytes are hydrated in aqueous solution...
  • 10.7 Dissolution of Ionic Substances
    
    Not all ionic substances are soluble in water...
  • 10.8 Precipitation of Ionic Substances
    
    Most reactions between ionic compounds take place in aqueous solutions, but not all of the species present in the solutions necessarily take part in the reactions...
  • 10.9 Solubility Equilibria
    
    A precipitate is in equilibrium with its ions in solution, and, in this section, we show how to treat that equilibrium quantitatively...
  • 10.10 Exercises and Solutions
    
    Select the links to view either the end-of-chapter exercises or the solutions to the odd exercises...
• Chapter 11 – Electron Transfer Reactions and Electrochemistry
  • Introduction
    
    Redox, or electron transfer, reactions constitute one of the broadest and most important classes of reactions in chemistry...
  • 11.1 Electron Transfer or Redox Reactions
    
    We begin our study of electron transfer reactions by introducing some terms and definitions and examining the electron transfer process...
  • 11.2 Half-Reactions
    
    Redox reactions can be broken down into two half-reactions, an oxidation and a reduction, that show the loss and gain of electrons explicitly...
  • 11.3 Galvanic Cells
    
    We have seen that electrons transfer spontaneously from the donor to the acceptor if the transfer lowers their free energy...
  • 11.4 Standard Reduction Potentials
    
    The standard reduction potential of a redox couple is a measure of the electrical potential of the redox electron in that couple relative to the potentials of the redox electrons in other couples under standard conditions...
  • 11.5 Writing Redox Reactions
    
    We now use our understanding of half reactions and standard reduction potentials to write net equations for redox reactions...
  • 11.6 Common Batteries
    
    Batteries are devices that utilize the free energy from spontaneous redox reactions to generate electrical energy, i.e., they are electrochemical cells...
  • 11.7 Corrosion
    
    Corrosion is the unwanted oxidation of a metal...
  • 11.8 Electrolytic Cells
    
    We have seen that spontaneous redox reactions can be used to generate electrical energy in an electrochemical cell, and, in this section, we demonstrate the reverse of that process, using electrical energy to drive redox reactions that are not spontaneous...
  • 11.9 Exercises and Solutions
    
    Select the links to view either the end-of-chapter exercises or the solutions to the odd exercises...
• Chapter 12 – Acid-Base Chemistry
  • Introduction
    
    The terms acid and base have been used for several hundred years...
  • 12.1 Lewis Acids and Bases
    
    The broadest definition of acids and bases is that of Lewis...
  • 12.2 Brønsted Acids
    
    Although the Lewis definition is the broadest, the Brønsted-Lowry (or simply Brønsted) definition is the most frequently used acid-base definition in aqueous solutions...
  • 12.3 Brønsted Acid-Base Reactions
    
    Brønsted acid-base reactions all involve transferring a single proton from the acid to the base...
  • 12.4 Extent of Proton Transfer
    
    Not all acids and bases react very well with one another, and the degree to which they do react is referred to as the extent of proton transfer...
  • 12.5 Acid and Base Strengths
    
    We have now seen that the extent of an acid-base reaction depends upon the relative strengths of the reacting and produced acids...
  • 12.6 Acid Dissociation Constant, K_a
    
    The extent of an acid-base reaction depends upon the strengths of the reacting and produced acids, and the acid dissociation constants of the acids give us those relative strengths...
  • 12.7 Solutions of Weak Bases
    
    Water is also an acid, so it can react with weak bases to produce hydroxide ion and the conjugate acid of the weak base...
  • 12.8 Acid Base Table
    
    Acid-base reactions are extensive when the reacting acid is stronger than the produced acid...
  • 12.9 pH and pK_a
    
    The hydronium ion concentration is an important property of an aqueous solution, but it can be very small, so it is often given on the p-scale to avoid writing exponents...
  • 12.10 Exercises and Solutions
    
    Select the links to view either the end-of-chapter exercises or the solutions to the odd exercises...
• Chapter 13 – Organic Chemistry
  • Introduction
    
    Organic chemistry is the study of carbon based compounds...
  • 13.1 Hydrocarbons
    
    We begin our study of organic chemistry with two classes of compounds that contain only carbon and hydrogen...
  • 13.2 Naming Simple Hydrocarbons
    
    Understanding the nomenclature of alkanes, alkenes, and alkynes will help you understand some of the diversity in organic molecules that will be discussed later in the chapter...
  • 13.3 Isomers
    
    We have seen that there can be several organic compounds with the same formula...
  • 13.4 Functional Groups
    
    Organic molecules are designed with specific sizes, shapes, and functional groups to perform specific functions (e.g., a better drug or a stronger plastic)...
  • 13.5 Introduction to Organic Reactions
    
    A good amount of organic chemistry can be understood with Lewis acid-base theory...
  • 13.6 Polymers
    
    Natural polymers, such as carbohydrates, proteins, and nucleic acids, are part of living tissue and are responsible for increasing the rates of reactions and giving structural characteristics like strength and flexibility...
  • 13.7 Exercises and Solutions
    
    Select the links to view either the end-of-chapter exercises or the solutions to the odd exercises...
• Chapter 14 – Inorganic Chemistry
  • Introduction
    
    Organic chemistry is based on the chemistry of carbon, so that leaves the chemistry of over 100 other elements to be characterized as inorganic chemistry...
  • 14.1 Ligands and Coordination
    
    The molecules and ions that are bound to metals are called ligands...
  • 14.2 Ligand Fields
    
    The chemistry of the transition metals can be understood in terms of the interaction between the ligands and the metal's d-orbitals...
  • 14.3 Isomers
    
    Inorganic compounds can form geometrical isomers when the ligands can situate in different ways relative to one another...
  • 14.4 Metals in Biology
    
    Plants extract energy from the sun to synthesize carbohydrates (C_n(H₂O)_n) in a process called photosynthesis, and animals extract the energy from the carbohydrates in a process called respiration...
  • 14.5 Metals as Catalysts
    
    The interaction between a ligand and a metal can be used to provide new pathways for chemical reactions; i.e., metals catalyze some reactions...
  • 14.6 Transition Metals as Electronic and Magnetic Materials
    
    Thus far, we have focused on reactive complexes in solution, but transition metal complexes that are used in materials applications must be stable (ligands bound tightly) and they must be in their crystalline state...
  • 14.7 Exercises and Solutions
    
    Select the links to view either the end-of-chapter exercises or the solutions to the odd exercises...

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